The Enlightenment Essays - Philosophes, Fellows Of The Royal Society

The Enlightenment Main Themes: The Enlightenment 1. The Enlightenment had its origins in the scientific and intellectual revolutions of the 17c. 2. Enlightenment thinkers felt that change and reason were both possible and desireable for the sake of human liberty. 3. Enlightenment philosophes provided a major source of ideas that could be used to undermine existing social and political structures. I. The Major Themes of the Era: A. rationalism --* logical reasoning based on facts. B. cosmology --* new world view based on Newtonian physics --* analysis of natural phenomena as systems. C. secularism --* application of scientific theories to religion and society. D. scientific method --* experimentation; observation; hypothesis. E. utilitarianism (Bentham) --* laws created for the common good and not for special interests. The greatest good for the greatest number. F. optimism & self-confidence --* anything is possible (a reversal of medieval thinking). G. tolerance --* a greater acceptance of different societies and cultures. H. freedom --* a mind as well as a society free to think, free from prejudice. I. mass education. J. legal / penal reforms --* Beccaria, Bentham. K. constitutionalism. L. cosmopolitanism. II. The Philosophes: A. Not really philosophers, but men who sought to apply reason and common sense to nearly all the major institutions and mores of the day. B. They attacked Christianity for its rejection of science, otherworldliness, and belief in man's depravity (Deism). C. Their major sources: LOCKE --* man's nature is changeable and can be improved by his environment. NEWTON --* empirical experience and the rationality of the natural world. BRITAIN --* exemplified a society in which enlightened reason served the common good. D. France became the center for Enlightenment since its decadent absolutism and political and religious censorship seemed to prove the need for reform. E. Paris salons. F. Diderot's Encyclopedie. G. physiocrats: FRANCOIS QUESNAY --* land is the only source of wealth, and agriculture increases that wealth; therefore, the mercantilists were wrong to put so much importance on the accumulation of money. ADAM SMITH --* Wealth of Nations --* he challenged mercantilist doctrine as selfish and unnatural; the interdependence among nations; Father of Modern Capitalism. H. Montesquieu --* The Spirit of the Laws -- admired the British government. -- separation of powers in the government. -- checks and balances. I. Rousseau --* The Social Contract -- Father of Romanticism. -- he differed from the other pholosophes, esp. Locke: -- law is the expression of the General Will. -- rejected science and reason; go with your feelings (inner conscience). -- Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains! J. Voltaire -- Candide -- champion of individual rights. -- I do not agree with a word you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it! -- leading advocate of Enlightened Despotism. III. Enlightened Despotism: A. Prussia: -- Frederick I (1714-1740) -- the Seargent King. -- Frederick II (1740-1786) B. Habsburg Austria: -- Maria Theresa (1740-1780) --* Pragmatic Sanctions. -- Joseph II (1765-1790) --* considered to be the only true enlightened despot. C. Russia: -- Peter the Great (1682-1725) --* Westernization (Windows to the West). -- Catherine the Great (1762-1796) --* rigorous foreign policy; partitions of Poland. IV. Results of Enlightenment Thought: A. contributing factor in the American and French Revolutions. B. Enlightenment thinking reflected in the U. S. Declaration of Independence. C. Enlightened Despots. D. European thought became centered on the belief in reason, science, individual rights, and the progress of civilization. E. New evangelical religious movements --* Pietists, Methodists. ADDITIONAL TERMS TO KNOW: philosophesphysiocratsutilitarianismcosmopolitanismsalonlaissez-faireImmanuel KantJohn WesleyMethodismPietismGeneral WillPhilosopher-King The Enlightenment The Age of Reason 18th century intellectual movement based on reason caused by the scientific revolution Questioned the physical universe Centered in Paris -the modern Athens Believed in natural laws - very secular Criticized: a) Absolutism b) Established Church Very important to American Revolution Enlightened Thought 1) Natural science should be used to understand all aspects of life a) Nothing was to be accepted on faith b) Caused conflict with the church 2) Scientific laws were capable of discovering human and natural laws 3) Humans could create better societies and people Enlightenment Philosophe (Fr. Philosopher) but not only a French movement Critics of absolutism did not face death for their beliefs like in other countries French was the lingua franca -international language of educated Critics of the Old Regime and absolutism Developed new ideas about God, human nature, good and evil, and cause and effect relationships Humans were basically good, but corrupted by society Ideas were established by Marquis de Condercet in Progress of the Human Mind Salon Bernard de Fontenelle popularized science and made it easy to understand Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds Fontenelle brought science and religion into conflict (Catholics and Protestants scientists believed their work exhalted God) John Locke English thinker, rejected Descartes Tabula

Cooperatives in Kenya Essays

Cooperatives in Kenya Essays Cooperatives in Kenya Essay Cooperatives in Kenya Essay Co-operatives are user-owned, user-controlled and user-benefited organisations. They could be agricultural, non-agricultural, unions, or Savings and Credit co-operatives. They operate in different sectors of the economy including, agricultural, handicraft, Jua kali, transport, housing development, building and construction, banking and many other such spheres of the economy. Clearly, the cooperative movement has had its tentacles in every possible sector of the Kenyan business world. These co-operatives, and more strongly established, the agricultural cooperatives , play a major role in production, especially in the marketing bit. However, the broad objective of the co-operative concept is to promote the economic interests and general welfare of members in accordance with co-operative principles, and thus, pivotal in economic growth and alleviation of poverty. The policy objective of the Kenyan co-operative movement is to spur sustainable economic growth by focusing on achievement of desired outcomes through strengthening of the movement, improving operation extension service delivery, corporate governance, access to markets and marketing efficiency (International Monetory Fund 2007). The co-operatives have an immense potential to deliver goods and services in areas where both the public and the private sector have not ventured into. In most cases, co-operatives are local institutions that address local needs, employ local talent and are lead by local leaders, either directly or through branches. The co-operatives in Kenya are organized into service and producer co-operatives. The producer co-operatives’ objectives are to promote the use of modern technology and contribute to national development through production. The service co-operatives are responsible for procurement, marketing and expansion services, loan disbursement, sale of consumer goods and member education. The co-operatives have made remarkable progress in agriculture, banking, credit, agro-processing, storage, marketing, dairy and housing. Service co-operatives are the closest to communities and are organized on a shareholder basis, formed by individual members of organizations voluntarily working in a specific geographical area. For instance, primary level sugarcane farmers co-operatives provide a collection point for ,the farmers’ prooduce and even negotiate the per ton cost of sugarcane. Considering the substantial benefits that the cooperative movement has to our economy, and considering its significance to the livelihood of many, the Government recognizes the need for urgently improving management structures and accountability of co-operatives, so as to create a sustainable environment for their existence and operations. Just some few numerical facts to back my case as to influence of co-operatives to the society: -The cooperative is almost 103 years old, having started with the Dairy Societies in 1908. -In Kenya, we have about 12,000 registered co-operatives out of which 5000 are SACCO’s (Savings and Credit Co-operatives). -The Co-operative movement in Kenya has a membership of over 7 million individuals, making it the largest in Africa. It impacts directly and indirectly on 70% of Kenya’s population. SACCOS themselves have mobilized over 150 Billion Kshs in savings, more than 30% of the National Domestic Savings. -There is an entire Ministry, Ministry of Co-operative Development that provides enabling policy, legal and institutional framework. The co-operative movement in Kenya is organized into a system comprising of primary and secondary societies. The structure coalesces into a four tier structure of primary co-operatives, Unions, National co-operative Organizations (NACOs) and one Apex body, the Co-operative Alliance of Kenya (CAC). At each level, different functions can be performed. While the structure is stable, the performance and linkages within the various levels is weak, but there is room and potential for the co-operatives to work together much more through local, national, regional and international structures than the current prevailing situation. Historical Origin of Co-operative movement in Kenya – A Timeline survey 1908 – The first co-operative in Kenya formed, exclusive to the white settlers. 1945 – A new Co-operative Societies Ordinance was enacted allowing African participation. 946 – A department of co-operatives was established and a Registrar appointed. 1952 – Colonial civil servants began joining the movement. About 160 co-operatives registered. 1954 – Application of the Swynnerton plan boosted the co-operative movement. 400 registered. 1963 – Upon independence, co-operative movements were the key cornerstone of nation building. Around 1000 soc ieties had been registered. 1967 – The Government initiated KNCDP (Kenya Nordic Co-operatives Development Program), which was funded by Nordic countries and also the World Bank. 974 – Kenya had a fully fledged Ministry of Co-operative Development. 1997 – A new policy was formulated to provide for a member based, autonomous and member controlled movement, through Sessional Paper no. 6 of 1997. 2004 – The Co-operative Societies Amendment Bill, 2004 sought to re-introduce Government control while recognizing a free market economy. Principles upon which the Co-operative movement is founded. Voluntary and Open membership – There should be no limitation to membership in a co-operative society. Limitations may only be placed where a certain skill or profession is required. Therefore, co-operative membership is open to all who are willing to accept the responsibilities of membership without gender, social, political or religious discrimination. Democratic member control – It works on the following principles: 1)Members must have the final authority in making decisions concerning their society. 2)Every member has one vote notwithstanding his or her share contributions. 3)There must be a small group of members elected by other members which forms the committee which manages and administers the society. Autonomy and Independence – Co-operatives are self-help organizations controlled by members. All contracts entered into by the co-operative is done without external influence and by collective decision of the members themselves. Member economic participation – A co-operative is formed not for the motive of profit, but to provide services. This is branched into 2: 1)Limited rate of interest on capital – A share capital of a co-ope rative gets a limited rate of interest. Key aim is to benefit members collectively and thus applying capital generally to development of the co-operative. 2)Disposal of surpluses – In a co-operative there should be a fair and just system of distribution of surplus. Therefore surplus is either reinvested for the benefit of the society in general, or distributed in proportion to a member’s business transaction with the society. Promotion of education, training and information – A member of a co-operative must be informed of everything about the co-operative organization. This includes his rights, obligations, the principles that guide the society, the management and administration and its activities. Co-operation among co-operatives – This principle was established to strengthen the co -operative movement through mutual assistance at local and international level so as to bring about social and economic development of people regardless of their background. Concern for the community – Co-operatives work for the sustainable development of their communities through policies approved by the members. The general upliftment should be the key thought upon co-operative decision making. Moral values upon which the Co-operative movement is found Self-help – A Co-operative is formed by members to help themselves achieve a certain objective or benefit which would be difficult, or almost impossible to achieve as individuals. Chief concern is to help members themselves. Self responsibility – A co-operative movement is self-sustained, it has its own management, makes its own decisions and undertakes its own responsibilities. Every member accepts the risks associated thereto, and in case of a mishap, every member shall bear the brunt of it collectively. Democracy – Every member has 1 vote in decision making regardless of the proportion of shares held. All decisions and resolutions made by a co-operative are made collectively with maximum member participation. Majority rule prevails. Equality and Equity – A co-operative treats all members as equal regardless of their capital or investment. All members are given equal rights and are subject to the same obligations. Rules and principles of a co-operative are also applied uniformly, and decision making is also every member’s right and not a decision of a chosen few. Solidarity – All members of a co-operative are very adamant and firm on their cause and purpose for which the union was formed. There is a sense of unity that binds them together. Moreover, every co-operative helps another co-operative for furtherance of the collective co-operative movement. Honesty – Members are required to come to the co-operative with truth and honesty. They should also be willing to undertake their duties with due diligence, and report every profit or benefit gained personally in the pretext of the co-operative. Openness – Co-operative members are required to be open to each other in the sense that they should disclose information in their possession which would have been beneficial to the co-operative, and even to share ideas and thoughts of other members amongst themselves, not for personal gain, but for mutual benefit. Social responsibility – The chief aim of the co-operative movement is to promote the economic welfare of the members and even the general public at large. A co-operative movement should ensure the development and poverty alleviation of the people of the region where it is situated. Benefits of Co-operative organizations to the community at large When it comes to agricultural co-operatives, they help farmers in the collection, transportation, processing and marketing of agricultural produce. A common example would be the Kenya Co-operative Creameries (KCC) which has over the ears helped dairy farmers get value for their milk. Co-operatives enable many individuals pool their funds, to undertake bigger projects and investments which they would otherwise not be able to do, e. g Cashew nut farmers came together to form a co-operative through which they erected a plant to process their produce, since the Government had banned exports of raw cashew nuts abroad. The co-operatives could distribute farm inputs more efficiently and thus boost agricultural production while cutting costs. A common example would be the import of seeds. Many farmers would get access to high quality highbred seeds which would be imported by the co would be to purchase a common item used by every member in bulk, so as to enjoy quantity discounts. Previously, small-scale farmers used to sell their produce to middlemen who would be the link to the actual buyers. This would mean, a substantial portion of the profits would be chewed up by the middlemen. After the establishment of co-operatives, the co-operative eliminated the middlemen. This meant, the entire profits would be retained by the members themselves. Social control mechanisms become an acceptable substitute for physical assets as collateral for loans. The co-operative may also allow its assets, upon agreement by other members, to be used as collateral to seek loans for the upliftment of one of their members. Poverty can be alleviated by planning, organizing, implementing and managing income-generating activities. Co-operatives promote even the smallest of farmers to gain a fair value for their produce. This encourages many individuals who are below poverty lines to farm for themselves. Single and widowed women even have a way to earn for themselves. They are catered for through their co-operatives. Development funds are channelled to individual members. Individuals with exceptional ideas are motivated and encouraged where funds are commonly pooled via the co-operative and distributed to those requiring them. Members can be educated on economic and social issues affecting the industry, including development of entrepreneurial skills. The co-operatives organize workshops and trainings for their members to build their knowledge and skills in their areas of expertise. The co-operative also undertakes to solve common problems together. E. g KCC (Kenya Co-operative Creameries) helping dairy farmers save their cattle from ticks. Wealth and capital can be created and owned jointly by large groups of low income earners. There is a common pool through which capital is owned and invested in specific areas for profit generation for all the members of the co-operatives. The co-operative concept encourages a common sharing of ideas. When members come together, they exchange ideas to come up with ingenious solutions for their problems, or clever solutions for their common investments. Challenges facing co-operatives in Kenya Lack of integrity on the part of the union, society committee members and employees. The corrupt people in management mismanage and misapply funds which act to the detriment of other members. Some co-opera tives have even been opened as a con, a money making scheme for the certain few. Excessive costs in handling member produce, and high administration costs. Sometimes the administration costs of the co-operative tends to supercede the profits and gains of the co-operative, this renders a co-operative not viable, and eventually spell its dissolution. Poor management. Some of the co-operatives, especially the ones for low income individuals are poorly managed, since those in management of the co-operative are illiterate and not well educated, therefore there would be serious lapses and judgemental errors and inefficiencies in their decisions. Lack of basic understanding among the co-operatives about the purpose and functions of the movement. Some of the members do not understand the purpose of the co-operative movement, hence they are unaware of how exactly to capitalize on the co-operative for their own benefit.. Inadequacy of resources. Majority of the co-operatives are formed by low income earning individuals whose very quest is wealth upliftment. Therefore the investment of such individuals in the co-operative is minimal, and thus, leaves the co-operative handicap – with a lot of ideas, but few resources to cater for its implementation. Some of the co-operatives fail to reach up to the standard acceptable by consumers and most importantly, acceptable by export standards. Therefore, many co-operatives, due to poor delivery of quality, do not get value for their products. This greatly hampers their income generating ability. Government involvement. Sometimes the government involvement is too excessive, and thus it makes some of the co-operatives too dependent on Government support and foreign aid. Such an attitude prevents the co-operative from operating on its 100% capacity and ability. Some co-operatives face stiff competition for their products, from rich investors who deal in the same product. This would not allow the small co-operatives to grow into being businesses to enable them to compete with the rich investors. SUGGESTED REFORMS The Ministry should undertake constant training and workshops for members of co-operatives and most importantly the management of the co-operatives to enable the co-operative to be steered in the right direction, in the most efficient of manners. Help co-operatives to deal with technological changes by informing them of new developments, and also to undertake research which would help the co-operatives to deliver quality products. The Government should easen up their lending rates for co-operatives to enable them access easy finance, to enable them to undertake larger projects so as to grow enough to compete with other investors in the same industry. Corrupt managers and co-operative members be subject to the stringent of rules, and punished severely for their misdeeds, so as to curb con men from using the co-operative movement as their money mint. Threaten to deregister any co-operative which con ducts its operations with low integrity. This would instil more confidence of the public into the co-operative movement, and encourage them to be part of it. POWERS OF THE REGISTRAR OF DISSOLUTION OF SOCIETIES. If the registrar after holding an inquiry or making an inspection or receiving an application made by at least three quarters of the members is he of the opinion that the society ought to be dissolved he may in writing order its dissolution and subsequent cancellation of registration. Any member who feels aggrieved by this order may within two months after its making appeal against it to the Minister with a final appeal to the tribunal. Where no appeal is filed within the prescribed time the order shall take effect on the expiry of that period but where an appeal is file within time the order shall not take effect unless confirmed by the minister or by the tribunal. When the registrar makes that order, he must make a further order relating to the custody of the books and documents of the society and the protection of its assets. It should be noted that no society shall be dissolved or wound up except by an order of the registrar. Where a society has less than the prescribed number of members the registrar may in writing order its dissolution and that order takes effect immediately and where registration is cancelled the society ceases to exist as a corporate body from the date the order takes effect. It should also be noted that Section 64 applies the provisions relating to winding up of companies to winding up of cooperative societies. Where a registration is cancelled the registrar may appoint one or more persons to be liquidator or liquidators of that society and all the property of such a society vests in him from the date upon which the order of cancellation takes effect CONCLUSION To reach large numbers in the low income sector, requires an able and strong co-operative ministry, which has a firm co-operative policy guiding it. The co-operative policy should be capable of meeting diverse needs of different segments of the population and varied speres of the economy. Co-operatives and strategic alliances are very important in setting pace for individuals to venture into entrepreneurship, or self wealth creation, especially for low income households, a sector of the economy which has been severely neglected by the commercial Kenya. These households would get a blessing in disguise in the shape of a co-operative. Promotion of the co-operative movement should be seen as one way of promoting social and economic justice, especially in developing countries which are ravaged by poverty, diseases and hunger. In Africa, co-operative development is certainly the nest frontier for low income earners who want to strike it big. This is a movement which has enormous potential for expansion and growth. Once again, I emphasize that the cooperative structure and the cooperative philosophy are very effective and flexible in satisfying the needs of the poor. This makes the cooperative model very idea for channelling agricultural products, and the idea of farming into the masses. I wish the cooperative movement in Kenya a fruitful future, and wishing them luck in their battle against poverty eradication coupled with high inflation. ******************************** REFERNCES: -Class Notes -Article by Nelson Kuria of CIC Insurance Ltd in the Daily Nation -www. cooperative. go. ke -www. ilo. org -Handout by Mr. Mweseli, from the KLSS Bureau -Nutshells – Business Law

Americans versus the Spanish Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Americans versus the Spanish Culture - Essay Example Pietri managed to illustrate the actual state of the cultural rivalry and the differences between the American and the Spanish communities in America. The poem clearly showed the differences, mostly due to his decision to use a number of issues such as differences in language, skin colour, and economic differences. Culturally, people of the Spanish community were considered slaves of the Americans and were supposed to work in their fields, industries and homes, ultimately dying with the poverty they came with to the country. The poem explored their deplorable conditions, their lack of ambition and their high level of suffering. Pedro Pietri revealed that hardly could the Spanish escape poverty that ravaged their masses. Instead, they died in hope for a better life, like owning some form of property, for example, a piece of land or a house. In their efforts to impress their bosses, they frequently died. He sympathized with them, for he never saw a possible end to the problems in the f oreseeable future. The scolding and demeanour of the race is evident, with the writer noting that some workers wished death would befall their supervisors so that they could get a pay rise. He actually sympathized with the troubled race of the Spanish and their hopeless condition. (Pietri 1-11). Rodriguez (7) gave his reasons for believing in the existence of cultural differences between the Americans and the Spanish. However, he did not vividly highlight the effects of this difference, just like Pedro Pietri did. His is a story of his

Applied ethics ( ethics in marketing) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Applied ethics ( ethics in marketing) - Essay Example The theory emphasizes the need for people to learn how to break bad habits of character for example greed or anger (Chonko, & Hunt, 1985). The advertisement I choose from the news is on the Embassy Cigarettes. On the theory of deontological, the company marketing has the obligation to adhering to the moral rules. This implies that when marketing this brand of cigarettes, they should not give any misleading information about the product. Marketers must clearly indicate the contents that have been used to make the cigarettes on the packet. The contents indicated must genuine, only those that were used without any additional materials or omitting some of the ingredients. This a moral ethic as the consumer gets to know what was used in the making of that product and based on that information, consumers will make decisions. When all the content is genuinely on the packet, the user will read through that information and based on it, they will be able to decide whether to buy it or not. Marketers must ensure that the information they display is not misleading to the product consumer (Gibson, 2000). The marketers of the Embassy Cigarettes must focus on the second theory of marketing ethics, the teleology theory. Based on their advertisement, the marketers should consider what action their decision might have to the consumer after using the product. The teleology theory emphasizes that the company has the obligation of taking care of the customer. The product should not affect the user after using it, due to the false information given to it. For example, if the marketers omit to include an ingredient used in the manufacture of the cigarette on the packet, it is not ethically correct. This because a consumer will make a wrong decision in case the product consist an ingredient that causes complications to their health. When they buy and use the product, they are sure

Finding a Large Problem as an Idea and How to Implement It to Achieve Success Essay Example for Free

Finding a Large Problem as an Idea and How to Implement It to Achieve Success Essay Ideas can and do change the world. Ideas are important to bring innovation and change in this world. Ideas can be used by students to achieve success in their academic life. Through the power of ideas, students can revitalize their sagging prospects and boost their grades. Of all the ideas mentioned in class, I was very impressed by the idea of finding a large problem and working to rectify the problem. It’s similar in my mind to finding a root cause or a deeply entrenched issue that is preventing success. To cure a problem or to enhance performance, one has to begin at the grass roots level. To find a problem, one has to look in hindsight and do a back ward analysis as to where one was found wanting. By identifying the problem, alienating it from other issues and after generation of ideas and solutions for the problem, the best solution is selected (International Development Experiences, Applications Systems, 2004). So, in order to prevent future occurrences, one has to begin by looking at the past. I can use this approach to solve a great deal of the issues in my academic and personal life. I will discuss academic solutions here. One of the largest problems that I face as a student is that my grammatical and vocabulary skills are not very refined and need a lot of work. I identified this problem by looking at past comments of my teachers. I have understood that there are a number of alternatives to solving this problem. Firstly, my spoken English remains very satisfactory, so my focus is on my written communication. One of the alternatives is to read various items, such as books, journals, magazines and newspapers. Another alternative is to practice writing essays and summaries. The final alternative is to do a combination of both the above alternatives. Since reading is not sufficient to increase writing skills and similarly writing with my current vocabulary base is also not nearly enough. Therefore, the best alternative is to allot time to both reading and writing every week. List of References International Development Experiences, Applications Systems. (2004, November 1). FAQs. Retrieved 2 2, 2009, from IDEAS Problem based learning: http://celt. ust. hk/ideas/pbl/faqs/index. html#1

The First Punic War (264-241 BCE) :: essays research papers

The First Punic War (264-241 BCE) Since the beginning of time, man has waged war on his neighbors, his friends and his enemies. In many cases these wars were caused by power-hungry nations that were in the process of expanding their empire and ended up stepping on the toes of another superpower or ally of a superpower. In the case of the first Punic War between Rome and Carthage, Carthage was extending its empire and they stepped on Rome’s toes. During the course of this war the winner was unclear but at times victory seemed eminent for both sides until Rome finally won. The Romans had control in the first part of the war but this would not last. After the Romans first win they decided that they needed a victory over the city of Carthage but this would turn the tides in favor of the Carthaginians. For some 15 years after this defeat of Rome the tides went back and forth between the two but would eventually lead to the Romans victory. After the victory, Rome made some very harsh demands and Carthage filled thos e demands even though some of them were very extreme. The first Punic War started with a request by the locals in Messana for the Romans to aid them in defeating the Carthaginians. Messana was at the southern tip of Italy and would be a great asset to the already superior naval fleet of Carthage. Rome saw this to be a good opportunity to halt the expansion of the Carthaginian Empire and to stop the possible attack on Italy (which was controlled by Rome). Despite this fact the Roman council debated on whether to attack on these premises or not, but eventually it was decided that they would wage war on the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians were then told that they must halt their invasion or war would be waged. They did not stop and Rome declared war. The first battle was fought entirely in Sicily, in 263BCE, and since the Romans were the superior fighters they took the ground battle and continued to prevail until 256BCE. After the victory over Carthage, the Romans began besieging Greek cities that allied with the Carthaginians. The Romans sacked these cities, which caused them to harden their resistance. Rome realized that to beat the Carthaginians they needed to build a fleet and in 261BCE they began building. To counter the Romans inexperience at sea they used a device called a corvus (a large gangplank with a spike on the underside).

Political Stability Essay

Political instability has become a huge and serious problem for both developing and underdeveloped countries. Pakistan is also in one of these countries which is facing the problem of political instability. The instability of government, inefficiency of political parties and a weak political culture make Pakistan a politically instable state. Political stability is important for keeping the society integrated, maintaining legitimacy, economic development and supremacy of law in a state. In political stable condition people have power they use their powers for the development of nation, and in politically instable condition people feel powerless, lose their trust on government and they prefer their own interest in front of state and then the society leads to split. Political stability is very important for nation-building. There are many countries which have comparatively stable political system such as in China, Egypt and so on. Many underdeveloped nations of Asia and Africa including Pakistan have been confused as how to overcome the problems of national integration, economic development, political participation which have been grown simultaneously in these states. There are five issue areas as described by Lenard Binder, which causes political instability in a state. These areas are: â€Å"Identity crises, legitimacy Crisis, Penetration crisis, Participation crisis and distribution crisis. † These all issues play an effective role in making the politics instable, but we only discussed the first two issues, the identity crisis and legitimacy crisis in Pakistan. Identity crisis creates negative effects on the sentiments of nationalism and the feeling of people towards political system. The dismemberment of East Pakistan and present situation in Sindh and balochistan is occurring due to the identity crisis. Identity crisis mostly occurs in pluralistic societies in the form of ethnic, language and religious differences. Pakistan is also a pluralistic society that’s why politically instability becomes more serious in Pakistan and the role of our leaders becomes more important than any other factor. In Pakistan there is also a problem of dysfunction of federal system. The federal crisis occurs when the pressure of regional demands goes to an extreme and don’t get satisfactory response from the state, and it cause separation from the federation. East Pakistan break-up was also due to this reason. A federation cannot exist or survive without a spirit of partnership and co-operation between the provinces and centre. The problem of identity and legitimacy crisis is closely related to each other. The sense of identity may also be developed by accepting the legitimacy of the authority. The legitimacy crisis regarded with the form of governmental institutions, the break down in the constitutional structure and the authority of leadership. Legitimacy crisis occur when people reject the leaders claimed based on historical preference and the leaders thrown out when they fail to fulfill the promises and then this situation leads to the crisis of authority. The problem of political stability in the context of identity and legitimacy crisis in Pakistan has been sharpened mainly due to the effects of rapid socio-political mobilization and, excessive and un institutionalized role of civil and military bureaucracy, which has unbalanced the entire political order of the country. The leadership in Pakistan is always from top to bottom, and in actual the process of becoming a leader starts from bottom to top, in which the first step is social welfare service then entering in political arena. The leadership in Pakistan is based on family patterns. In Pakistan the family leadership is popular amongst people because of lack of education. The lack of education and decay of leadership are the two most important contributing factors to the political instability in Pakistan. In Pakistan political instability is also due to our weak history of leadership that’s why the theme of a national leadership lost in these various levels of leadership. The other form of leadership exist in Pakistan for a long time is dictatorship and it rule in three decades. Dictatorship also the cause of political instability, it makes the institution of leadership weak. Weak organization of political parties also makes Pakistani politics instable. The present political trend in Pakistan is forming coalition amongst different political parties, which is the reason of current instable conditions. Coalition set up is considered temporary arrangement in political scenario everywhere in the world. Lack of clear majority of anyone political party also shows that people do not trust any of these partners that is why all enjoy less support. The most important and immediate challenge the political instable condition of Pakistan is creating is mishandling of issue of war on terrorism. Since September 2008 USA leading the NATO forces started attacking frontier areas of Pakistan and violated the sovereignty of Pakistan in the name of combating terrorism and chasing the terrorists may be hiding in these areas. These attacks are increasing by the times. Moreover, the indirectly contributing factor towards the worsening political situation is external interference of other powers for their selfish interests. Pakistan is a rich country in terms of important minerals, gas and important coasts the finding of resources and being a gate way towards the hot waters has made Pakistan an attractive country for external powers. The present world is a global world where every field is determined by intense competition: state craft, conduct of diplomacy, effective policy making, and strong economy are the most important challenges every state has to face. Political instability in any state leads to disorder amongst the units. The global world is providing aid and support to Pakistan but in presence of insincere leadership and political instable conditions the huge foreign aid is not giving any positive results. If we consider the case of Pakistan, it seems quite agreeable that adequate economic growth could only be possible if there are stable institutions in the political order. The political stability can be achieved if legitimacy of the institutions and personal legitimacy of the ruler has been solved. Conclusion: The present political instability in Pakistan has increased the external and internal challenges for its society and state. The present and immediate need of the time is a stable political system, since Pakistan has to combat inside terrorism, has to face and convince its own people that this war is necessary, and Pakistan has to satisfy its allies and as well as neighbors and manage the pressure that Pakistan is taking positive steps to counter the situation. The main problem in this whole scenario is lack of trust amongst Pakistan and the allies and neighbors keep exploiting the situation. This situation has endangered the future of Pakistani people who are now considering Pakistan is an insecure place. Without politically stability Pakistan did not become the world best state.